EPA and DHA in Pet Food: Functional Differences and How to Choose the Right Ingredient Source

Pet foods that promote “omega-3 inclusion” have become increasingly common in recent years. However, product designs that treat EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) as a single combined concept are beginning to face limitations in terms of competitive differentiation. Although both are long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs), they differ in carbon chain length, metabolic pathways, primary target tissues, and oxidative stability.

In addition, ingredient sources such as fish oil, algal oil, krill oil, flaxseed oil, and perilla oil vary greatly in terms of inclusion limits, absorption characteristics, and supply chain risks. Whether a manufacturer has clear decision-making criteria for formulation can directly affect both the functional positioning and cost structure of the final product.

This article is intended for pet food manufacturers and product development managers. Based on primary reference materials, it summarizes the functional differences between EPA and DHA, the characteristics of each ingredient source, the current regulatory and nutritional standards, and practical formulation considerations in OEM production.

What You Will Learn in This Article

• The molecular and metabolic differences between EPA and DHA, and the physiological functions each is best suited to support.
• The current evidence in dogs and cats for skin, joints, cognition, kidney function, and related areas.
• How to compare and use fish oil, algal oil, krill oil, flaxseed oil, and perilla oil.
• Current positions of AAFCO, FEDIAF, NRC, and the Japan Pet Food Fair Trade Association.
• Practical OEM formulation points, including oxidative stability, ingredient form, and storage management.
• How to approach ingredient selection from the perspective of global sourcing networks.

EPA and DHA Are Not Simply “the Same Omega-3”

Conclusion: EPA and DHA are distinct fatty acids with different carbon chain lengths and numbers of double bonds. Their biological functions also differ. In formulation design, the basic approach should be to evaluate not only the “total mg” of omega-3, but also the specific EPA/DHA breakdown and ratio.

Molecular Differences

EPA and DHA are both long-chain n-3 fatty acids, but their structures are different. EPA has 20 carbon atoms and 5 double bonds, while DHA has 22 carbon atoms and 6 double bonds.

In the body, there is a metabolic pathway by which ALA (alpha-linolenic acid) can be converted into EPA and DHA. However, in dogs, the final conversion step from DPA to DHA is limited, which means that even if large amounts of ALA are supplied, DHA may not accumulate sufficiently. In cats, the enzyme activity required to convert ALA into EPA and DHA is even lower, making the conversion efficiency more limited than in dogs.

For this reason, it is not appropriate to assume that increasing ALA will automatically supply sufficient EPA and DHA in dog and cat formulations. When making functional claims based on EPA or DHA, it is necessary to confirm the actual inclusion levels and ratio of EPA and DHA themselves, rather than relying on ALA.

It should also be noted that ALA may have its own immunomodulatory effects, separate from its role as a precursor to EPA and DHA. However, this area remains under investigation, and product claims should be made with caution.

Functional Differences

After EPA is released from cell membranes, it can act as a precursor for lipid mediators such as series-3 prostaglandins, series-5 leukotrienes, and E-series resolvins through pathways including cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase metabolism. These mediators differ from those derived from arachidonic acid and are involved in the regulation of inflammation. E-series resolvins, in particular, are associated with the resolution of inflammation.

DHA, on the other hand, is a major structural component of phospholipids in neuronal and retinal cell membranes. It is an important fatty acid involved in synaptic function, visual transmission, and brain development in puppies and kittens. These findings are also summarized in sources such as NRC (2006) and Bauer (2011), and they provide a starting point for differentiating EPA- and DHA-based functional positioning.

Evidence for Functional Benefits in Dogs and Cats

Conclusion: The maturity of evidence for EPA and DHA differs significantly by functional area. In canine joint health, especially osteoarthritis, relatively strong clinical evidence exists. For skin and coat, there are intervention studies and reviews supporting potential benefits. For cognition and kidney function, however, claims should be designed carefully while considering species differences, life stage, and disease stage.

Joints: Osteoarthritis / OA

In dogs with osteoarthritis (OA), studies have reported positive changes in joint condition and gait following EPA/DHA supplementation.

For example, Roush et al. (2010), a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, reported improvements in lameness, joint condition, and weight-bearing. Mehler et al. (2016) also showed changes in the fatty acid balance of red blood cell membranes, along with improvements in clinical signs.

A 2021 systematic review further examined multiple randomized trials involving dogs and cats. It suggested the potential usefulness of EPA/DHA in areas such as canine allergic dermatitis, coat problems, keratoconjunctivitis sicca, valvular disease, and osteoarthritis in dogs and cats.

Skin and Coat

EPA and DHA have also been studied as nutrients involved in maintaining skin and coat health in dogs. However, the effects can vary depending on the ingredient source, inclusion level, breed, and study duration, so results should be interpreted carefully.

In a recent dog study, male Beagles were given snacks containing krill oil for 8 weeks. Positive changes were observed in coat condition, dandruff, antioxidant markers, and inflammation-related markers.

• Ideal coat ratio: increased from 50% to 72.22%
  In the control group, it decreased from 55.56% to 50%.
• Dandruff score: significant difference from the control group on Day 56 (p < 0.01)
• Serum antioxidant enzymes — SOD, CAT, and GPx: all significantly increased (p < 0.01)
• Inflammation-related markers: TNF-α decreased by 50.86%, IL-1β by 18.45%, and IL-8 by 33.55%

However, this was a short-term study using male Beagles, so the same results cannot necessarily be assumed for all dog breeds or all EPA/DHA products.

Cognition and Brain Development

DHA is an important fatty acid for the development of the brain and retina in puppies and kittens. Supplementing the dam with EPA/DHA during pregnancy and lactation, or feeding DHA-fortified diets after weaning, may support visual function, memory, and learning ability.

On the other hand, research on DHA supplementation for cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS) in senior dogs is still developing. Therefore, product communication should avoid definitive claims such as “improves cognitive function.” A more appropriate expression would be that DHA supports the maintenance of cognitive health associated with aging.

Cardiovascular Health

EPA/DHA may be used as part of nutritional management for dogs with heart disease. However, the effects can vary depending on breed and disease condition, so broad claims such as “good for the heart” should be avoided.

In addition, human cardiovascular research results cannot be directly applied to dogs without caution. In product design, it is appropriate to avoid wording that suggests treatment or improvement of disease and instead limit claims to nutritional support for maintaining cardiovascular health.

Kidney Function: Chronic Kidney Disease / CKD

A small pilot study in cats with early-stage chronic kidney disease (CKD) reported that feeding DHA-rich fish oil for 28 days led to improvements in blood fatty acid balance and kidney function-related markers. Specifically, the study reported reduced arachidonic acid (AA), increased DHA concentration and DHA:AA ratio, and improvements in SDMA, UPC, and urinary NAG index.

However, this study focused on cats with early-stage CKD caused by polycystic kidney disease (PKD), and the number of subjects and study conditions were limited. Therefore, it cannot be concluded that the same effects can be expected in all cats with CKD.

In dogs with CKD, there is comparatively more research accumulation on EPA/DHA, suggesting potential usefulness for reducing kidney burden and supporting the maintenance of kidney function.

Comparison of Ingredient Sources

Conclusion: Each ingredient source differs in EPA/DHA content, molecular form, oxidative stability, and sustainability profile. If ingredients are compared only by price, manufacturers may miss both functional positioning opportunities and supply stability considerations.

Ingredient Source	Main Components	Molecular Form	Typical Content	Strengths	Points to Consider
Fish oil	EPA + DHA	Triglyceride (TG)	EPA around 18% / DHA around 12% for standard refined fish oil	Extensive use history, cost-efficient, strong evidence base	Highly oxidation-sensitive, marine resource sustainability concerns, heavy metal control required
Algal oil	Mainly DHA, with EPA depending on product	TG / FFA	Some products specify DHA content of 35% or higher	Does not rely on fishery resources, suitable for vegetarian positioning, low heavy metal contamination risk	Many products have limited EPA content, higher cost, safety and regulatory basis must be checked by supplier specification and market
Krill oil	EPA + DHA	Phospholipid-bound form, with astaxanthin	EPA approx. 20–26% / DHA approx. 12–15%, depending on product	Characterized by phospholipid-bound absorption pathway and accompanying antioxidant pigment	High cost, dependence on Antarctic marine resources, allergy concerns
Flaxseed oil	Alpha-linolenic acid / ALA / C18:3n-3	TG	ALA 50% or higher	Low cost, plant-derived	DHA conversion is limited in dogs, conversion efficiency is low in cats, not suitable as an EPA/DHA source
Perilla oil	Alpha-linolenic acid / ALA	TG	ALA around 60%	Domestic sourcing potential in some markets, plant-derived	Same as above; extremely oxidation-sensitive

Fish Oil

Fish oil is the most widely used EPA/DHA source and has the largest body of supporting evidence. Oils from small fish such as anchovies and sardines are generally considered to have relatively lower heavy metal accumulation risk. Salmon oil may be valued for color and palatability, but when naturally sourced, the fatty acid composition should be checked by lot because variation can occur.

Refined products, such as ethyl ester forms or re-esterified triglyceride forms, are generally more stable than free fatty acid forms, but processing costs are added. In OEM production, it is practical to define raw material specifications by clearly balancing refinement grade, required quality, and cost.

Algal Oil

Schizochytrium sp. is a microalga capable of producing DHA-rich oil. Because it does not use fish as a raw material, it is attracting attention as a sustainable DHA source that can reduce pressure on marine resources. Major suppliers such as DSM-firmenich, Veramaris, and Corbion also promote algal oil as a way to help protect wild fish resources.

However, regulatory considerations require caution. In the EU, the permitted uses of certain Schizochytrium sp.-derived oils have been expanded as Novel Foods for human consumption. This, however, concerns human food use and does not automatically mean the ingredient can be used in pet food or animal feed. When adopting such ingredients, manufacturers need to check EU feed-related regulations, the rules of each target market, and supplier specifications.

In the United States, there are also FDA GRAS Notices related to DHA algal oil derived from Schizochytrium sp., but some of these evaluations were discontinued before completion by the FDA. Therefore, it cannot be stated that the FDA confirmed the safety of those products. Safety and regulatory compliance should be confirmed separately through supplier documentation, public evaluation materials, and the food or feed regulations of the relevant sales market.

Schizochytrium sp.-derived oil is rich in DHA, but many products contain low levels of EPA. Therefore, for concepts that emphasize EPA, such as joint support, combining algal oil with a fish oil or another EPA source may be more realistic.

Krill Oil

Krill oil is derived from Antarctic krill and is characterized by EPA and DHA bound to phospholipids. In a dog study, snacks containing EPA/DHA from krill oil were fed for 8 weeks, and positive changes were reported in coat condition, skin condition, and inflammation-related markers.

In humans, some studies have reported that phospholipid-bound EPA/DHA may be more readily incorporated into the body. At the same time, recent views also suggest that the total amount of EPA/DHA ultimately consumed may be more important than molecular form. Therefore, human findings should not be directly applied to dogs and cats without caution.

From a practical standpoint, krill oil is characterized not only by its phospholipid-bound EPA/DHA, but also by its astaxanthin content. Because astaxanthin may help suppress lipid oxidation, it can be used as a differentiation point for the ingredient.

Flaxseed Oil and Perilla Oil

Plant oils such as flaxseed oil contain high levels of ALA, or alpha-linolenic acid. ALA is one type of omega-3 fatty acid, but dogs and cats do not efficiently convert ALA into EPA and DHA. In particular, dogs have limited conversion to DHA, and cats have low enzyme activity related to conversion. As a result, using plant oils rich in ALA does not usually provide sufficient EPA/DHA support.

Therefore, plant oils can be useful as sources of “plant-derived omega-3,” but they should be considered separately from EPA/DHA sources such as fish oil, krill oil, and algal oil when making EPA/DHA-based functional claims.

ALA itself may also have independent immunomodulatory effects, but this remains an area of ongoing research.

Current Position of Regulations and Nutritional Standards

Conclusion: EPA + DHA are positioned as essential nutrients for growth and reproduction, while their status for adult maintenance remains undefined. For maintenance-stage products, labeling and claim design must balance functional positioning with scientific accuracy.

AAFCO

Item	AAFCO Position
Dogs: growth and reproduction	EPA + DHA total: at least 0.05% DM, or 10 mg/100 kcal
Cats: growth and reproduction	EPA + DHA total: at least 0.012% DM, or 3 mg/100 kcal
Adult dog and cat maintenance	Undetermined; essentiality is recognized, but quantitative standards have not been established
Dogs: n-6:n-3 ratio	Maximum 30:1. The denominator includes major n-3 fatty acids such as ALA, EPA, and DHA. Refer to the original AAFCO publication for life-stage-specific application.

AAFCO nutrient profiles for dogs and cats provide reference values for EPA + DHA in foods for growth and reproduction. Representative values include 0.05% DM for dogs and 0.012% DM for cats.

However, when using these values for product labeling or formulation, manufacturers should always confirm the latest AAFCO Official Publication and the standards of the target sales country or region.

FEDIAF 2025 Edition

FEDIAF nutritional guidelines are widely referenced by the European pet food industry. As of April 2026, the 2025 edition is publicly available.

For EPA/DHA, as with AAFCO, recommendations are mainly provided for dogs and cats during growth and reproduction. In adult dog and cat maintenance, the foundation remains essential fatty acids such as linoleic acid (LA), and in cats, arachidonic acid (AA), rather than EPA/DHA itself.

EPA/DHA should therefore be designed according to the product objective, taking into account life stage, energy density, and overall fatty acid balance.

NRC 2006

NRC 2006, Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats, presents the following for EPA + DHA:

• Dogs, including growth, adult maintenance, and reproduction: safe upper limit of EPA + DHA is 2.8 g/1,000 kcal
• Cats: no safe upper limit has been established for EPA/DHA

For dogs, the value of 2.8 g/1,000 kcal is often used as a reference when considering high-inclusion EPA/DHA formulations. It is also a useful benchmark for research design and pre-commercial safety assessment.

For cats, however, there is no clear safe upper limit for EPA/DHA. Therefore, when designing high-inclusion foods or when supplements may be used together with a complete diet, it is necessary to assess not only total EPA/DHA intake, but also vitamin E levels, potential effects on blood coagulation, and the presence of underlying disease.

Japan Pet Food Fair Trade Association

In Japan, labeling rules are established through the Pet Food Safety Act and the Fair Competition Code. These rules cover information such as product name, target animal species, ingredients, best-before date, country of origin, and business operator information.

At present, however, it is not mandatory to display specific EPA or DHA content.

That said, for B2B materials, premium-positioned products, and functionally positioned products, separating total omega-3 content from EPA and DHA values can make the formulation intent easier to communicate. For example, displaying the amount in “mg/100 kcal” or “per daily feeding amount” can make the product easier to evaluate.

However, such display methods cannot yet be described as an industry-wide standard. It is safer to present them as effective labeling design options for differentiation, rather than as a standard practice.

Practical OEM Formulation Considerations

Conclusion: EPA/DHA are nutritionally important, but they are also highly prone to oxidation. Therefore, not only the inclusion amount but also oxidation control throughout manufacturing and storage will determine the product’s value and the credibility of its functional positioning.

Evaluate Oxidation Using Three Indicators Together

For marine oils rich in EPA/DHA, three indicators are commonly used to assess oxidation status: PV, p-AV, and TOTOX.

• PV, or peroxide value, indicates the early stage of oxidation.
• p-AV, or p-anisidine value, indicates compounds formed after oxidation has progressed.
• TOTOX combines PV and p-AV to provide an overall view of oxidation progress.

GOED standards provide the following shipment specifications for marine oils:

• Peroxide value / PV: ≤ 5 meq/kg
  Indicator of initial oxidation and primary oxidation products.
• p-Anisidine value / p-AV: ≤ 20
  Indicator of advanced oxidation and secondary oxidation products.
• TOTOX = 2 × PV + p-AV: ≤ 26
  Combined indicator of primary and secondary oxidation.

In finished products, oxidation may progress during manufacturing and storage. In OEM practice, PV below approximately 10 meq/kg may sometimes be treated as an operationally acceptable range. However, when PV exceeds 5, oxidation may already be progressing, so it is important to evaluate p-AV and TOTOX together rather than relying on PV alone.

The oxidation behavior of EPA/DHA also differs depending on product form, such as capsules, syrups, powders, or kibble inclusion. Therefore, EPA/DHA-containing products require ongoing management of PV, p-AV, and TOTOX not only at raw material acceptance but also from post-manufacturing through the end of shelf life.

Practical Points for Oxidation Control

Antioxidant system design:
Natural antioxidants such as mixed tocopherols, rosemary extract, and ascorbyl palmitate, as well as synthetic antioxidants such as BHA and BHT where regionally permitted, should be combined according to pet species, sales market, and clean-label requirements.

Oxygen barrier packaging:
Multilayer films with EVOH layers, nitrogen flushing, and oxygen absorbers can be effective.

Manufacturing lot design:
Smaller pack sizes, taking post-opening deterioration into account, and controlled temperature and humidity storage by lot are practical considerations.

Common Pitfalls in OEM Production

In dry food, adding EPA/DHA as a coating after extrusion can help reduce heat damage. However, oxidation may still progress depending on spray conditions, drying time, and cooling conditions. Even with post-coating, oxidation control remains necessary.

In jerky and treat products, directly mixing EPA/DHA into the dough may improve palatability. However, when water activity (aw) is high, manufacturers must manage not only oxidation risk but also microbiological risk.

In addition, even when a product states that it contains “natural tocopherols,” this does not automatically mean oxidation stability is sufficient. In practice, the inclusion amount, timing of addition, and combination with other antioxidants must also be designed carefully.

Claim Design Pitfalls and Differentiation Points

Conclusion: “Contains omega-3” is no longer a strong differentiator by itself. Separate EPA/DHA disclosure, clear ingredient sourcing, and supporting specification data are becoming closer to the next competitive baseline.

Common Pitfalls

• Displaying only total EPA + DHA
  Specialist readers may judge the functional target to be unclear.
• Claiming “rich in DHA” without disclosing amount or source
  This makes comparison difficult and may reduce the likelihood of being cited or evaluated in search results.
• Creating the impression that plant-derived omega-3 is equivalent to EPA/DHA
  This can create compliance and consumer misunderstanding risks.

Differentiation Points

• Clearly identify the ingredient source, such as “refined anchovy-derived fish oil” or “algal-derived DHA.”
• Display amounts in mg/100 kcal or mg per daily feeding amount.
• Explain the relationship with AAFCO, FEDIAF, or NRC standards, such as “x times the growth-stage recommendation.”
• Provide PV, p-AV, and TOTOX lot test data for oxidative stability at the B2B material level.

Ingredient Selection from a Sourcing Network Perspective

Conclusion: EPA/DHA ingredients are relatively high-risk materials from a sourcing perspective because supply sources are limited. Therefore, it is important to avoid dependence on a single country, region, or ingredient, and to maintain multiple options such as fish oil, krill oil, and algal oil.

Because EPA/DHA ingredients have limited supply sources, product designs should not depend too heavily on one region or one raw material. Fish oil, krill oil, and algal oil should be considered according to product concept and price positioning.

Although our company does not directly procure EPA/DHA oils, we support OEM partner selection by leveraging our network of OEM manufacturers in New Zealand, Canada, Australia, Thailand, Europe, and other regions. This allows us to consider which ingredients, production formats, and quality standards each manufacturer can support.

For example, depending on the product concept, potential options may include dry food using fish oil, treats containing krill oil, or sustainability-focused products using algal-derived DHA.

In OEM ingredient selection, it is important to evaluate four factors together: functional positioning, price range, sustainability claims, and supply stability. Relying on a single source can increase risk due to marine resource price fluctuations, geopolitical risks, and changes in specifications. Therefore, from the initial design stage, it is practical to consider not only the main ingredient source, but also alternative ingredients and alternative OEM partners.

FAQ

Q1. For labeling, is it better to show total EPA + DHA or the individual values for EPA and DHA?

In Japan, neither approach is currently required as mandatory labeling. However, separating EPA and DHA values can improve the precision of functional communication.

Displaying only total omega-3 content may be disadvantageous for both competitive differentiation and communication of functional evidence.

Q2. Algal oil is rich in DHA but low in EPA. Is it unsuitable for joint-support positioning?

Many algal oil products currently on the market are DHA-focused and contain low levels of EPA. Therefore, when joint support is the main claim, combining algal oil with fish oil or using a high-EPA algal strain may be more realistic.

If a fully plant- or non-fish-derived concept is not essential, a formulation that uses fish oil as the main source and algal oil to optimize the EPA/DHA ratio can also be an option.

Q3. Can a product containing only flaxseed oil be labeled as a “DHA source”?

In principle, this is not appropriate. Flaxseed oil is rich in ALA, or alpha-linolenic acid, not DHA. ALA is a precursor to EPA and DHA, but dogs and cats do not convert it efficiently into EPA or DHA.

In dogs, conversion to DHA is particularly limited. In cats, the enzyme activity involved in conversion is low. Therefore, it is not appropriate to treat flaxseed oil as an EPA/DHA source.

For labeling and claims, it should be described as “plant-derived omega-3,” specifically ALA or alpha-linolenic acid, and should be kept separate from EPA/DHA claims.

Q4. Is the phospholipid form in krill oil really more absorbable?

Some human studies suggest that phospholipid-bound EPA/DHA may be more readily incorporated into the body. However, recent views also suggest that the final amount of EPA/DHA consumed may be more important than differences in absorption rate. In addition, human results cannot be directly applied to dogs and cats.

Therefore, rather than making a definitive claim that krill oil has “higher absorption,” it is safer to position it as a differentiated ingredient containing phospholipid-bound EPA/DHA together with astaxanthin.

Q5. Should EPA and DHA amounts be displayed in the Japanese market?

EPA and DHA amounts are not mandatory labeling items. However, for B2B discussions, specialist communication, and premium-positioned products, separately disclosing EPA and DHA can make the formulation intent easier to understand.

When displaying these values, it is necessary to organize whether the figures are analytical or designed values, the unit used, such as mg/100 kcal or mg per daily feeding amount, and how they relate to the feeding guide. The wording should also be designed carefully to avoid misleading interpretation.

Summary

EPA and DHA are not simply “the same omega-3.” They are long-chain n-3 fatty acids that differ in carbon chain length, metabolic pathway, target tissue, and suitability by ingredient source. In formulation design, manufacturers should evaluate not only total omega-3 content, but also EPA/DHA breakdown, ingredient source, oxidative stability, n-6:n-3 balance, and vitamin E design.

The key points of this article are summarized below.

1. EPA and DHA Should Be Considered Separately
   EPA and DHA are both omega-3 fatty acids, but their roles in the body differ. EPA is mainly involved in inflammation regulation, while DHA supports the structure of the brain and retina. Therefore, it is important to consider not only the total EPA + DHA amount, but also the individual breakdown and ratio.
2. Dogs and Cats Cannot Produce Sufficient EPA/DHA from ALA
   ALA found in flaxseed oil and perilla oil is a precursor to EPA and DHA. However, in dogs, conversion to DHA is limited, and in cats, the enzyme activity required for conversion is low. Therefore, ALA alone cannot sufficiently supply EPA/DHA. Plant oils are useful as plant-derived omega-3 sources, but they should be considered separately from EPA/DHA sources.
3. Ingredient Selection Requires Understanding the Characteristics of Each Source
   Fish oil has a strong evidence base and is a cost-effective EPA/DHA source. Algal oil is rich in DHA and suitable for sustainability positioning. Krill oil is characterized by phospholipid-bound EPA/DHA and astaxanthin content. Plant oils mainly provide ALA and have a different role from EPA/DHA. Product design should combine functional claims, price positioning, and sustainability considerations when selecting ingredients.
4. Regulatory Standards Differ by Life Stage
   AAFCO and FEDIAF provide EPA/DHA standards mainly for growth and reproduction in dogs and cats. In adult maintenance, clear quantitative standards may not be established. NRC 2006 provides a safe upper limit for EPA/DHA in dogs, but no equivalent upper limit is established for cats.
5. EPA/DHA Formulation Requires Oxidation Management
   EPA and DHA are highly prone to oxidation. PV, p-AV, and TOTOX should be monitored together, and antioxidants, packaging design, and storage conditions should be combined to maintain quality through the end of shelf life. For EPA/DHA-containing products, formulation amount alone is not enough; oxidation control is a key part of quality design and claim reliability.

By leveraging our OEM manufacturer network in New Zealand, Canada, Australia, Thailand, Europe, and other regions, we support OEM partner selection based on product concept, functional positioning, cost, sustainability, and supply stability.

If your company is considering pet food development using EPA/DHA, formulation direction, selection of suitable OEM manufacturers, or product design that accounts for oxidative stability, please contact us through one of the channels below.